India’s economy was predominantly agrarian before independence, with approximately 75% of the population dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. However, despite being the backbone of the economy, agriculture was in a dismal state due to British policies, stagnation, and economic exploitation.

Key Characteristics:

1. Small and Fragmented Land Holdings: Land was divided into small, scattered plots, making cultivation difficult and inefficient.
2. Outdated Technology: Traditional methods with little modernization were used in farming.
3. Dependence on Rainfall: Crop production heavily relied on monsoons, making agriculture vulnerable to weather changes.
4. Low Productivity: Low levels of output were observed despite large cultivation areas.
5. Subsistence Farming: Farmers mainly produced for their families rather than for commercial purposes.
6. Zamindari System: Landowners extracted rent from farmers, causing poverty and backwardness.

Factors Contributing to Agricultural Stagnation

1. Zamindari System: The exploitative zamindari system allowed landowners to collect rent from farmers regardless of their productivity or hardships. This system prevented farmers from reaping the benefits of their labor and kept them impoverished.

2. Commercialisation of Agriculture: Under British rule, there was a shift from subsistence farming to the commercialisation of agriculture, where crops were grown for sale in markets rather than for local consumption. However, middlemen pocketed most of the profits, leaving farmers in dire conditions.

3. Lack of Resources: Farmers lacked access to modern equipment, fertilizers, and irrigation facilities. The unavailability of proper resources worsened agricultural productivity, leading to poor output.

4. Dependence on Rainfall: The sector’s heavy reliance on the monsoon season meant that droughts or excess rainfall could devastate entire crops. This created an unstable environment for agricultural growth.

5. Low Productivity: Productivity remained low due to several factors like lack of technology, fragmented landholdings, and poor access to agricultural resources. Even though there was a large amount of land available for cultivation, the output per hectare was insufficient to meet the needs of a growing population.

Impact of British Policies on Agriculture

British colonial policies worsened the situation of Indian agriculture. Although agriculture formed the backbone of the economy, generating around 70% of national income, it was heavily taxed. The British system favored the export of cash crops, leaving the farmers vulnerable to market fluctuations and food shortages. Even though commercialisation expanded agricultural output for export, it did not contribute to the economic welfare of Indian farmers.

Farmers had limited access to modern farming techniques, and the absence of adequate infrastructure (such as irrigation and fertilisers) perpetuated low productivity. The British administration did little to improve agricultural practices, focusing instead on maximizing tax revenues from Indian farmers.

Agricultural Backwardness on the Eve of Independence

As India approached independence, the agricultural sector was in a state of significant backwardness. The poor condition of the farmers, coupled with the lack of modern techniques, meant that the majority of the Indian population struggled for survival. There was little progress in farming techniques, and productivity remained low.

With an over-reliance on rain and small, inefficient farms, Indian agriculture was caught in a vicious cycle of poverty and stagnation. Farmers, bound by archaic systems like zamindari, remained powerless in improving their living standards.

Conclusion

On the eve of independence, agriculture in India was trapped in a system that hindered its development. While a large portion of the population depended on farming for their livelihood, British policies, coupled with outdated farming methods and poor infrastructure, left the sector weak and stagnant. The exploitative zamindari system and commercialisation, without benefiting local farmers, only deepened their economic distress. Indian agriculture’s poor state reflected the need for drastic reforms, which would later become part of the nation’s developmental agenda after independence.

For students, understanding the agricultural sector’s challenges at the time is crucial to comprehending the broader economic struggles of pre-independence India.